Contents
Part I Inner Saint: Some Aspects of Chinese Religion
1 Chinese Faith Triangle: Confucianism, Daoism,
and Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Confucianism and Daoism in the Qin and Han Dynasties
(221 B.C.–220 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism in the Wei and
Jin Dynasties (220–589 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism in the Sui
and Tang Dynasties (581–907 A.D.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism in the Song
and Yuan Dynasties (960–1368 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Faith Triangle in the Ming and Qing
Dynasties (1368–1911 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 The Basic Spirit of Chinese Culture and National Faith. . . . . . . . 23
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Relation between Heaven and Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Sacred Faith Based on Family Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Kinship Expanded from Family to Country
and to Ecological World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Sacredness and Initiative of Human Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 The Definition of Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Intellectual Dilemma for Diversified Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Definitions of Modern Chinese Academics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Reflections from Chinese Intellectual Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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4 A Hermeneutic Investigation into Heaven: The Key Concept
of Chinese Faith System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Heaven as Natural World Opposite to the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Religious Facets of Heaven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Political Facets of Heaven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Cultural Implications of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 The Religious Commitment of Confucian Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Confucian Humaneness (ren) as the Ultimately Real . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Moral Facet in Blood Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Sanctity in Natural Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Religious Commitments Ensuring Social Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Religious Aspects of Daoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Daoism as Indigenous Religion in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The Journey of Religious Daoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
The Intellectual Clues and Aspects of Religious Daoism . . . . . . . . . 77
Ways of Becoming the Immortal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Way to Outer Pills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
The Way to Inner Pills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
The Way to Devour Cosmic Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Pith-Consolidating-Sex (fangzhongshu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Daoist Classic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
The Earliest Three Classics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
The Mainstay of the Daoist Classics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
To Understand Chinese Through Religious Daoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7 The Buddha Nature Theory and It’s Social Value . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Universality of Buddha Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Self-Awareness of Buddha Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Social Value of Buddha Nature in Chan Scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Philosophical Sense of Buddha Nature in Chan Buddhism . . . . . . . . 109
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8 Human Dignity Reflected in Confucianism and Daoism . . . . . . . . 115
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Human Dignity Observed in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Human Dignity Observed in Chinese Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Narrow-Minded and Lofty-Minded Confucians . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Daoist Dao in Cultivating Humanistic Dignity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
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9 A Confucian Perspective on the Enlightenment and Religion . . . . 125
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
The Essential Features of the Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Religion Serving as Negative Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Religion Baptized in the Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Part II Outer King: Some Aspects of Chinese Philosophy
10 The Spirit of Chinese Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Bow Lost in the Universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Justifying One’s Life by Heavenly Mandate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Integration Between Heaven and Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Cosmos Mentality or Transcendent Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
11 A Brief Introduction to the New History
of Chinese Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Volume 1: The Pre-Qin Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Volume 2: The Making of Different Schools of Thought . . . . . . . . . 154
Volume 3: Confucianism Decreed as Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Volume 4: Neo-Daoism and Chinese Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Volume 5: Neo-Confucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Volume 6: Introduction of Western Scholarship and Eclipse
of Confucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Volume 7: Communist Ideology and Revival of Confucianism . . . . . 157
12 Daoism as Philosophy of Lao Zi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Dao as the Metaphysical Way in Chinese Faith System . . . . . . . . . . 159
Natural Harmony Revealed in Dao De Jing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Mercy Revealed in Harmonious Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Social Equity in Harmonious World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Benevolence in Harmonious World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Harmony in Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Merits in Reconciliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Peace as Mental Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Wisdom in Anticipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
13 Zhuang Zi’s Mentality of Cosmic Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Contents xvii
Zhuang Zi: His Works, Language, and Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
The Dao to Metaphysical Emptiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Dao in Daoist Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
One and Many . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Daoist Skepticism: Dao in Negative Affirmation . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Unified Identity for Diversified Cosmological Beings:
A Mystical World View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Air, the Cosmic Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Formation of the Cosmos: Cosmic Air in Its
Restless Movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Unified Identity: Absolute Relativity in Empirical World . . . . . . 176
Mentality of Cosmic Liberty: Spiritual Happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Nature and Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Spiritual Happiness: Humanistic Revelation from the Nature . . . 179
Social Value of the Daoist Cosmic Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Dao of Inner Saint and Outer King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Heavenly Dao and Human Dao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Dao of Inner Saint and Outer King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
The Impact of Zhuang Zi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
14 The Philosophical Aspects of Chinese Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Buddhist Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Buddhist Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Value Orientation or Life Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
15 Chinese Cosmopolitanism (tianxia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Evolution of Chinese Cosmopolitanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Cosmopolitan Space in the Forms of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
The Ethical Contents of the Chinese Cosmopolitan Space. . . . . . . . . 207
The Importance of Chinese Cosmopolitan Space
to the Making of Chinese Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
16 Moral Happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui (kongyan lechu). . . . 213
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui from Ethical Perspective . . . . . 213
Boundless Happiness Revealed in Natural World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Rational Happiness Realized in Subjective Conscience. . . . . . . . . . . 217
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
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17 Proprieties as Governmental Rules of Confucian Hermeneutics . . . 223
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Under Heaven: Cosmos With Political–Ethical Features . . . . . . . . . . 224
Proprieties (li) as Universal Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Filial Piety (xiao) as Family Norm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Loyalty (zhong) as Constitutional Norm for Country . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Loyalty as Political Norm for Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Righteousness (yi) as the-Norm-for International Relations . . . . . . . . 242
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
18 Moral Rights and Justification of Revolution:
Heart-Nature Theme of Mencius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Moral Rights Inherent in Human Beings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Moral Rights and Heart-Nature Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Moral Rights and Conscience Based on Heart-Nature. . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Violation of Moral Rights and Social Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
19 Political Personality Revealed in The Great
Learning (daxue). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
The Great Learning and Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The Three Principles and Their Political-Ethical Explanation . . . . . . 283
Conscience of One: Political Personality
with Cosmic-Ethical Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
20 Natural Justice and Its Political Implications in The Doctrine
of the Mean (zhong yong) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Intellectual Backdrop of The Doctrine of the Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Rule of Cosmological Harmony (yun zhi jue zhong). . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Natural Justice Revealed in The Doctrine of the Mean . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Ideal Politics in the Rule of Saint King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Conclusion: Reflections on Political and Legal Philosophies
by Cosmic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
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