Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xix
1 History, Definition, and Significance 1
Historical Development 1
Development of Education for Social Work 7
Developing a Literature on Social Work Supervision 11
Supervision in Group Work and Community
Organization 15
Toward a Definition 18
The Functions of Supervision 19
The Objectives of Supervision 20
The Hierarchical Position of Supervisors 21
Supervision as an Indirect Service 22
Supervision as an Interactional Process 22
Supervision as the Means to an End 22
Definition of Supervision 23
Empirical Validation of Definition 23
Ecology of Social Work Supervision 26
Community: General and Professional 26
The Social Work Profession 29
The Social Work Agency 30
The Unit Within the Agency 30
Supervisor-Supervisee Dyad (Supervisee Group) 30
The Demography of Social Work Supervision 30
The Significance of Supervision in Social Work 32
Summary 43
vi  Contents
2 Administrative Supervision 45
Introduction: Organizational Bureaucracy 45
Tasks 47
Staff Recruitment and Selection 47
Inducting and Placing the Worker 48
Work Planning 51
Work Assignment 52
Criteria for Assignment 53
Work Assignment Procedures 54
Problems in Work Assignment 55
Work Delegation 56
Monitoring, Reviewing, and Evaluating Work 60
Coordinating Work 62
The Communication Function 63
Process in Organizational Communication 64
Problems in Organizational Communication 66
Lateral Communication 68
Informal Communication 69
The Supervisor as Advocate 69
The Supervisor as Administrative Buffer 71
The Supervisor as Change Agent and Community
Liaison 74
Summary 77
3 Administrative Supervision: Problems in
Implementation 79
The Problem of Vicarious Liability 79
The Problem of Authority and Power 82
Rationale for Authority and Power 82
Supervisory Authority and Sources of Power 84
Reward Power 86
Coercive Power 87
Legitimate or Positional Power 87
Referent Power 88
Expert Power 89
Interrelations Between Types of Supervisory Power 89
Legitimation of Authority 94
Nonauthoritarian Authority 95
Problems in the Implementation of Supervisory
Authority 98
Contents  vii
Avoidance and Abrogation of Authority and Power
by Supervisors 98
Organizational Factors Attenuating Supervisory
Power and Authority 103
Supervisee Countervailing Power 106
The Problem of Rules, Noncompliance, and Disciplinary
Action 111
The Functional Value of Rules 111
Understanding Noncompliance 116
Monitoring Noncompliance: Supervisor Responsibility 122
Taking Disciplinary Action 124
Summary 127
4 Educational Supervision: Definition, Differentiation,
Content, and Process 129
Educational Supervision Distinguished from In-Service
Training and Staff Development 130
Significance of Educational Supervision 131
Relation of Educational Supervision to Administrative
Supervision 132
Content in Educational Supervision 135
The Individual Conference 143
Beginning the Conference 143
Structuring and Scheduling 143
Preparing 146
The Middle Phase 148
Teaching and Learning 148
Orientations to Teaching and Learning 156
Providing Helpful Feedback 158
Ending the Conference 162
Process Studies 163
Case Illustration 166
Summary 174
5 Principles and Problems in Implementing
Educational Supervision 175
Conditions for Effective Teaching and Learning:
Introduction 175
Principle 1: We Learn Best if We Are Highly
Motivated to Learn 176
viii  Contents
Principle 2: We Learn Best When We Can Devote
Most of Our Energies to Learning 179
Principle 3: We Learn Best When Learning Is
Successful and Rewarding 183
Principle 4: We Learn Best if We Are Actively
Involved in the Learning Process 186
Principle 5: We Learn Best if the Content Is
Meaningfully Presented 187
Principle 6: We Learn Best if the Supervisor Takes
Into Consideration the Supervisee’s Uniqueness 188
Establishing a Framework for Educational Supervision 193
The Significance of the Supervisor-Supervisee
Relationship for Educational Supervision 193
The Supervisor’s Problems in Implementing Educational
Supervision 195
Differentiating Educational Supervision from Therapy 199
Differences Between Supervision and Therapy 200
Purpose and Focus 200
Difference in Role Relationships 202
Problems in Implementation of Therapy-Educational
Supervision Distinction 204
Acceptance of Distinction Between Supervision
and Therapy: Empirical Data 206
The Parallel Process Component in Educational
Supervision 208
Developmental Supervision 212
Summary 216
6 Supportive Supervision 217
Introduction and Overview 217
Burnout: Definition and Symptoms 224
Sources of Job-Related Stress for the Supervisee 227
Administrative Supervision as a Source of Stress 227
Educational Supervision as a Source of Stress 228
The Supervisor-Supervisee Relationship as a Source
of Stress 229
The Client as a Source of Stress 231
The Nature and Context of the Task as a Source
of Stress 236
The Organization as a Source of Tension and Stress 240
Contents  ix
Community Attitudes Toward Social Work as a
Source of Stress 242
Worker Personality as a Factor in Burnout 244
Implementing Supportive Supervision 246
Prevention of Stress 248
Reducing and Ameliorating Stress 248
Recapitulation and Some Caveats 258
The Value of Supportive Supervision: Research Findings 260
Additional Sources of Support for Supervisees 264
The Client 264
The Peer Group 264
Social Support Network 265
Supervisees’ Adaptations 265
Supervisees’ Games 266
Manipulating Demand Levels 266
Redefining the Relationship 267
Reducing Power Disparity 269
Controlling the Situation 271
Countering Games 274
Humor in Supervision 276
Summary 277
7 Problems and Stresses in Becoming and Being
a Supervisor 279
Transition: Worker to Supervisor 280
Motives for Change 280
Preparation for Change 281
Changes in Self-Perception and Identity 283
From Clinician to Manager 287
Changes in Peer Relationships 289
Summary: Stress Associated with Becoming
a Supervisor 291
Ongoing Supervisor Stress: Problems in Being
a Supervisor 291
Ongoing Supervisor Stress: The Challenge of
Human Diversity 296
Race and Ethnicity as Factors in Supervision 297
White Supervisor–African American Supervisee 297
African American Supervisor–White Supervisee 299
x  Contents
African American Supervisor–African American
Supervisee 301
Gender as a Factor in Transition to Supervision 303
Gender as a Factor in Ongoing Supervision 305
Sexual Harassment: A Problem for Supervision 309
Problems Related to Hierarchical Position 312
Working with Administrators 313
Understanding and Working with Administrators 314
Summary of Stresses Encountered by Supervisors 315
Coping with Stress: Supervisors’ Adaptations 317
Supervisors’ Games 320
The “Good” Supervisor 323
Summary 327
8 Evaluation 329
Definition 329
Values of Evaluation 331
Value to the Worker 331
Value to the Agency 333
Value to the Client 334
Value to the Supervisor 334
Objectives of Evaluation 335
Dislike of Evaluations 336
Desirable Evaluation Procedures 340
Evaluation Conference: Process 346
Scheduling the Conference 346
Supervisor’s Conference Preparation 346
Worker’s Conference Preparation 347
Evaluation Conference Interaction 347
Communication and Use of Evaluations 350
Errors in Evaluation 352
Evaluation Outlines and Rating Forms 355
Evaluation Content Areas 358
Sources of Information for Evaluation 372
Evaluation of Supervisors 375
Controversial Questions 380
Summary 387
Contents  xi
9 The Group Conference in Supervision 389
Definition 390
Advantages of Group Supervision 391
Disadvantages of Group Supervision 399
Individual and Group Supervision: Appropriate Use 402
Research on Group Supervision 403
Group Supervision: Process 405
Group Setting 406
Purpose 406
Leadership and Planning 407
Content and Method 410
Supervisor’s Responsibility in the Group Conference 413
Humor in Group Supervision 419
Illustration of Group Supervision 420
Summary 425
10 Problems and Innovations 427
Observation of Performance: The Nature of the Problem 427
Direct Observation of Performance 433
Sitting In 433
One-Way Mirrors 433
Co-therapy Supervision 434
Observation Via Tapes: Indirect Observation of
Performance 435
Live Supervision During the Interview 442
Bug-in-the-Ear and Bug-in-the-Eye Supervision 443
Observing Worker Performance: A Recapitulation 447
The Problem of Interminable Supervision 448
Interminable Supervision and Worker Autonomy 449
Attitudes Toward Interminable Supervision 451
Innovations for Increasing Worker Autonomy 454
Peer Group Supervision 454
Peer Consultation 455
Interminable Supervision and Debureaucratization 456
Supervision in the Managed Care Context 459
Administrative Supervision and Managed Care 461
Clinical-Educational Supervision and Managed Care 462
Supportive Supervision and Managed Care 463
Agency Debureaucratization Experiences 464
xii  Contents
Problem: The Professional and the Bureaucracy 465
Ethical Dilemmas in Supervision 469
Sexism and Social Work Administration 473
The Problem of Education for Supervision 475
A Perspective: The Positive Values of Professional
Supervision 476
Summary 480
Bibliography 483
Index 547
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